Tannenbaum et al. 2015 — meta-analysis of 248 samples: fear appeals work, with efficacy

Claim: Tannenbaum et al. (2015, Psychological Bulletin 141(6):1178-1204), a meta-analysis of 127 articles / 248 independent samples (N=27,372): fear appeals had a moderate positive effect (d≈0.29), strengthened by efficacy statements, high susceptibility/severity, and one-time (vs repeated) recommended behaviors — and "there are no identified circumstances under which they backfire and lead to undesirable outcomes" when constructed with an efficacy/solution component.

Source: Tannenbaum, Hepler, Zimmerman, Saul, Jacobs, Wilson, Albarracín 2015, Psychological Bulletin. Meta-analysis.

Confidence: Verified.

Caveat: Minority literature (Peters, Ruiter & Kok) argues threat under low efficacy backfires. Both views AGREE that the efficacy pairing is decisive — which is the actionable point.

Why this matters for Candid: The widget can use frank difficulty assessments without fear of backfire — PROVIDED every difficulty signal ships with a feasible next step.